When I need a prescription filled, I have my choice of pharmacies to fill it at--Meijer, CVS, Walgreens, Rite-Aid, or the local one around the corner. I know that wherever I go, the same dose will contain exactly the same amount of medicine, and 100mg at Walker Street Pharmacy will be the same weight as 100mg at Walgreens. Safeguards protect me from contaminated medicines.
All these aspects of modern pharmacies appear in Muslim cities such as Baghdad near the ninth century. During this time period, Saydalah, Islamic pharmacy, developed as a separate field from general medical studies, and cities began to have multiple privately-owned pharmacies. In addition to those open to the general public, hospitals had pharmacies attached to formulate the large amounts of medicine needed for their patients. Public health was protected by a Al-Mutasib, who inspected pharmacies to make sure they used standard weights and measures and to inspect the purity of their prescriptions, similar to the manner in which the Food and Drug Administration regulates the pharmaceutical industry in the modern United States. Would-be pharmacists had access to manuals on medical materials, instructions for remedies, and pharmacy management, while today aspiring pharmacists spend several years in college obtaining a degree.
The medical and chemical knowledge possessed today were not all available to the Muslim pharmacists; they built the foundation on which our knowledge is now built. Two important pharmacy scholars were Abu Hasan 'Ali Af-Taban and Hunayn bin Is'haaq. Af-Taban wrote several books and set examples for future pharmacists on using only the best samples, describing procedures precisely, and applying particular remedies to particular ailments rather than broadly. bin Is'haaq translated the works of Greek philosophers and scientists into Arabic and Syriac, making them available to pharmacists of the Islamic world. He also published ten books on the treatment of eyes and eye medication.
Although they didn't have all the advancements and innovations in pharmacy science that are available now, Muslim pharmacies in Baghdad and other cities had a wide base of knowledge and vigorous standards. We have learned much from them, and still imitate many of their inventions and discoveries.
Source: Muslims: Pioneers of Pharmacology
Sunday, November 22, 2009
Islam vs. Christianity
There are many differences between Christianity and Islam, however there are many similarities as well. Both are considered "salvation religions", meaning they offers believers and followers a light of salvation at the end of there lives. They offer an afterlife or redemption of sins. They are both monotheistic, meaning their followers believe in only one God. The other religions that are included in these salvation religions include; Buddhism and Hinduism.
Christianity was founded quite a long time before Islam and today has the leading number of followers of the two, however Islam is not to far behind them in numbers. Christianity believes in the holy trinity which includes, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, all making up one holy God and church. They follow the guidelines for life from the Holy Bible written by many prophets and is known as the words for God and Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus, Gods one and only son, came down from heaven and was born from a the Virgin Mary. They believe he came down to save people on Earth from sins and death. He was crucified under Pontius Pilot and on the third day rose and destroyed death for all mankind. The Christians have many guidelines to follow, such as the ten commandments and the words given from God in the Bible. Those that choose to believe in this religion many times will go to church, however, there are many Christian denominations such as Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican. These sects are similar in using the Bible and in many ways of following the Christian way of life. The reason for these sects in Christianity is the way of believing. Each has broken away from the Catholic church, starting with the Reformation as a way of practicing their faith differently. This religion accepts many and has many followers.
Islam, on the other hand, is similar in the ways of using a sacred text, called the Qu'ran, which written in Arabic has guidelines on how to be a faithful Muslim as well as stories and explanations of the faith. Because of this similarity, Christianity and Islam are known as the "People of the Book" religions. Islam unlike Christianity, started with the prophet Muhammad. He is there only prophet and is also known as the Seal of the Prophet because they found him to be the last prophet to reveal the messages of God. The Muslim's worship the God Allah and there is no other God besides him. Unlike Christianity, Muslims believe that there is only God. He had no sons or daughters, or family of any kind. They believe that there are five things that one must do to be a Muslim. These are called the 5 Pillars of Islam. They also believe in the Articles of Faith which are similar to the Ten Commandments in Christianity. Islam, unlike Christianity, spread very rapidly throughout much of Asia, Africa and southern Europe. Christianity was not accepted in the vast Roman Empire until Emperor Constantine and the Edict of Milan. Before that, many Christians were persecuted. Also, Islam was not just the religion of a vast area, it became the political structure. Christianity created the Holy Roman Empire however, it really had little political ties to government. It was more of what people grasped on to when their empire was collapsing.
Because of there similarities and differences, each religion has been accepted in different parts of the world. It is interesting to learn about each and its great impact on the history of the world.
Christianity was founded quite a long time before Islam and today has the leading number of followers of the two, however Islam is not to far behind them in numbers. Christianity believes in the holy trinity which includes, Father, Son, and Holy Spirit, all making up one holy God and church. They follow the guidelines for life from the Holy Bible written by many prophets and is known as the words for God and Jesus. Christians believe that Jesus, Gods one and only son, came down from heaven and was born from a the Virgin Mary. They believe he came down to save people on Earth from sins and death. He was crucified under Pontius Pilot and on the third day rose and destroyed death for all mankind. The Christians have many guidelines to follow, such as the ten commandments and the words given from God in the Bible. Those that choose to believe in this religion many times will go to church, however, there are many Christian denominations such as Lutheran, Calvinist, and Anglican. These sects are similar in using the Bible and in many ways of following the Christian way of life. The reason for these sects in Christianity is the way of believing. Each has broken away from the Catholic church, starting with the Reformation as a way of practicing their faith differently. This religion accepts many and has many followers.
Islam, on the other hand, is similar in the ways of using a sacred text, called the Qu'ran, which written in Arabic has guidelines on how to be a faithful Muslim as well as stories and explanations of the faith. Because of this similarity, Christianity and Islam are known as the "People of the Book" religions. Islam unlike Christianity, started with the prophet Muhammad. He is there only prophet and is also known as the Seal of the Prophet because they found him to be the last prophet to reveal the messages of God. The Muslim's worship the God Allah and there is no other God besides him. Unlike Christianity, Muslims believe that there is only God. He had no sons or daughters, or family of any kind. They believe that there are five things that one must do to be a Muslim. These are called the 5 Pillars of Islam. They also believe in the Articles of Faith which are similar to the Ten Commandments in Christianity. Islam, unlike Christianity, spread very rapidly throughout much of Asia, Africa and southern Europe. Christianity was not accepted in the vast Roman Empire until Emperor Constantine and the Edict of Milan. Before that, many Christians were persecuted. Also, Islam was not just the religion of a vast area, it became the political structure. Christianity created the Holy Roman Empire however, it really had little political ties to government. It was more of what people grasped on to when their empire was collapsing.
Because of there similarities and differences, each religion has been accepted in different parts of the world. It is interesting to learn about each and its great impact on the history of the world.
Saturday, November 21, 2009
The History of the Qu'ran
Islamic belief is strongly centered in its scriptural writings of the Holy Qu'ran. The Qu'ran is a text of religious guidance and direction for mankind. This important collection of writings is as important to Islamic faith, as the Bible is to Christians. But how did such an important book become what it is today? How did it come together centuries ago and survive throughout centuries of war and religious struggle?
The Qu'ran began with the prophet Muhammad who received it from an angel during a revelation. His followers were the ones who copied down his visions, although during this time, writing was not one of the main sources at their disposal. Much of the Qu'ran was passed down orally until the correct means for writing were available. However, even when writings were completed, they were not bound together into one cohesive book, but separated and individual. It was because of the lack of binding, that forced many followers to memorize the ancient text and continue to pass down the teachings orally.
Under the order of Uthman, the Qu'ran was collected together and competed to create a single formal text. As the years passed and the spread of Islam grew, so did other cultures and languages. With the invention of paper and the growing intellectual society, translations of the Qu'ran were made for several other regions and countries. Since then, millions of copies of the Qu'ran have been made and have become the guiding symbol of the Islamic faith. Memorizing the Qu'ran is still a wide spread custom among them, continuing the tradition of how the Qu'ran was originally passed down.
Video notes
Friday, November 20, 2009
Muhammad Ibd Abdullah
Perhaps the best-known figure in Islamic history is Muhammad Ibd Abdullah. He was a powerful inspirational leader, who many consider to be the founder of Islamic religion.
Muhammad was born in 570 C.E. in the Arab city of Mecca. Mecca was an extremely important city, both during the time leading up to and following Muhammad’s lifetime. It was the place where the largest Arabic religious shrine, Kaaba, was located, and was home to a variety of different people, numerous fugitives, exiles, refugees, and merchants.
A tremendously influential religious experience caused Muhammad to believe that he was a messenger sent by Allah to speak to and guide the Arabs. Muhammad’s religious encounters with Allah over the next 22 years were documented in a book known as the Quran, which is observed to be the religious scripture of Islam, even to this day. Through the Quran, Muhammad demanded his followers to take on a monotheistic view, with Allah being the one and only god. He stressed social justice and moral values such as solidarity, equality, and generosity.
Muhammad’s revelations and teachings attracted a few important Meccan leaders, as well as free slaves and several from lower and poorer classes. However he also drew the attention of some of Mecca’s elite families, who were opposed to his strong testaments. Eventually, these oppositions drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca and to the town of Yathrib, later known as Medina. This migration marked the beginning of the new Islamic calendar.
Unlike the religious figures from the other Universal Faiths (Jesus and the Buddha), Muhammad was a political and military leader as well as a religious one. Muslims drew no line to separate the church from the state in regards to laws or leadership. Muhammad led them in religious practices and into battle until his death in 632 C.E.
Reference:
Robert Strayer, Ways of the World, a Brief Global History - Volume I: to 1500. pgs 303-308.
Muhammad was born in 570 C.E. in the Arab city of Mecca. Mecca was an extremely important city, both during the time leading up to and following Muhammad’s lifetime. It was the place where the largest Arabic religious shrine, Kaaba, was located, and was home to a variety of different people, numerous fugitives, exiles, refugees, and merchants.
A tremendously influential religious experience caused Muhammad to believe that he was a messenger sent by Allah to speak to and guide the Arabs. Muhammad’s religious encounters with Allah over the next 22 years were documented in a book known as the Quran, which is observed to be the religious scripture of Islam, even to this day. Through the Quran, Muhammad demanded his followers to take on a monotheistic view, with Allah being the one and only god. He stressed social justice and moral values such as solidarity, equality, and generosity.
Muhammad’s revelations and teachings attracted a few important Meccan leaders, as well as free slaves and several from lower and poorer classes. However he also drew the attention of some of Mecca’s elite families, who were opposed to his strong testaments. Eventually, these oppositions drove Muhammad and his followers out of Mecca and to the town of Yathrib, later known as Medina. This migration marked the beginning of the new Islamic calendar.
Unlike the religious figures from the other Universal Faiths (Jesus and the Buddha), Muhammad was a political and military leader as well as a religious one. Muslims drew no line to separate the church from the state in regards to laws or leadership. Muhammad led them in religious practices and into battle until his death in 632 C.E.
Reference:
Robert Strayer, Ways of the World, a Brief Global History - Volume I: to 1500. pgs 303-308.
Thursday, November 19, 2009
Taking a Deeper Look at the Five Pillars of Islam
The Five Pillars of Islam, or أركان الإسلا in Arabic, is the term given to the five particular duties one must take on to practice the Islamic religion. These particular duties are the foundation and framework of Muslim life, and must be performed. The pillars make up the core belief of the Islamic faith, and are the most important qualities in ones life. To a Muslim, they hold the same sacred aspect as the Ten Commandments to a Christian. The Ten Commandments and the five pillars both hold the key to living a better, religious life. The difference between the two is that the Ten Commandments state what one shall not do, and the five pillars state what one must do. The five pillars were created by God (Allah) and were then revealed through Quranic revelations and prophets. The five pillars are a priority in the Islamic Faith, and serve as the foundation of the religion. We all learned what the five pillars of Islam are in class, but in this post I will go deeper into why each is important, and what exactly happens with each.
The first of the five pillars of Islam is the testimony of faith, or Shahadah. One must publicly speak out about their Belief in one God, Allah. They must state, " Ashadu alla ilaha illa Allah, wa ashadu anna Muhammed ar-rasool Allah." This literally means, "I bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is his messenger." The reason for this statement is for Muslims to indicate they worship no other deities but Allah, and that Muhammad was chosen by him to send his message of Islam. They believe that Islam reached its definitive form through Muhammad. When the religion first originated, many polytheistic religions and practices still existed, and through this pillar, Muslims state their monotheistic belief in one God, Allah.
To learn more about the first pillar of Islam, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/193/
The second pillar of Islam is Salat, or ritual prayer. Muslims must pray at least five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca. If they miss a prayer, it must be made up at another time. The Salat is a very physical act of worship, using words and actions to signify their submission to Allah. They must confess their sins through each prayer. The first prayer is said at sun up, another at noon, the next at mid afternoon, another at sunset, and the last at sun down. Muslims believe that constant prayer is needed to keep their lives in perspective.
To learn more about the Salat, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/9/
The third pillar of Islam is Zakat, or charity. Muslims must give money and food to the less fortunate as an act of worship. Two and a half percent of all income and holding must be given, although they are more than welcome to go above and beyond the minimum limit. Muslims believe that all things belong to God, and that he trusts them to share their wealth. The poor are obviously excluded from the charity, but middle and upper class Muslims must practice this pillar.
To learn more about the third pillar of Islam, Zakat, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/46/
The forth pillar of Islam is Saum, or fasting. Ramadan is the name given to the holy month in the Islamic calendar. During this month, all Muslims who are able are obligated to fast from sun up to sun down. The fasting requires refraining from eating, drinking, smoking, or sexual intercourse. The reason for this is to practice discipline, unselfishness, devotion, and love to God, and shows compassion to those who are unable to eat. This must only be practiced by adults who are physically and mentally able to do so. It excludes young children, the elderly, pregnant women, and people who are seriously ill.
To learn more about the forth pillar of Islam, Saum, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/47/
The fifth, and last pillar of Islam is the Hajj, or pilgrimage. Mecca is the holy city of Islam, and each Muslim must make a pilgrimage to this site at least one time during their lifetime. Mecca unites Muslims from all over the world sharing the same beliefs. They take this journey to Mecca to worship and glorify their God, Allah. This pilgrimage is also seen as a spiritual journey, following in the steps of Muhammad. The pilgrimate serves as the ultimate forgiveness of sins, devotion, and intense spirituality.
To learn more about the fifth pillar of Islam, the Hajj, visit the following site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/184/
The five pillars of Islam are the foundation to the religion and the Muslim way of life. It is through these five obligations that Muslims prove their faith in their God, Allah. They shape the importance of the religion, and are the five tasks that must be accomplished to fulfill their lives as Muslims practicing the Islamic religion. Each religion is based on foundations, and have aspects that must be accomplished in order to practice that particular faith. It is important that we recognize religions other than our own and understand what is believed in around the world.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-five-pillars-of-islam.htm
http://www.themodernreligion.com/basic/islam_pillars.htm
http://www.allaboutreligion.org/five-pillars-of-islam-faq.htm
http://www.carm.org/five-pillars-of-islam
The first of the five pillars of Islam is the testimony of faith, or Shahadah. One must publicly speak out about their Belief in one God, Allah. They must state, " Ashadu alla ilaha illa Allah, wa ashadu anna Muhammed ar-rasool Allah." This literally means, "I bear witness that there is no God but Allah, and I bear witness that Muhammad is his messenger." The reason for this statement is for Muslims to indicate they worship no other deities but Allah, and that Muhammad was chosen by him to send his message of Islam. They believe that Islam reached its definitive form through Muhammad. When the religion first originated, many polytheistic religions and practices still existed, and through this pillar, Muslims state their monotheistic belief in one God, Allah.
To learn more about the first pillar of Islam, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/193/
The second pillar of Islam is Salat, or ritual prayer. Muslims must pray at least five times a day facing the holy city of Mecca. If they miss a prayer, it must be made up at another time. The Salat is a very physical act of worship, using words and actions to signify their submission to Allah. They must confess their sins through each prayer. The first prayer is said at sun up, another at noon, the next at mid afternoon, another at sunset, and the last at sun down. Muslims believe that constant prayer is needed to keep their lives in perspective.
To learn more about the Salat, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/9/
The third pillar of Islam is Zakat, or charity. Muslims must give money and food to the less fortunate as an act of worship. Two and a half percent of all income and holding must be given, although they are more than welcome to go above and beyond the minimum limit. Muslims believe that all things belong to God, and that he trusts them to share their wealth. The poor are obviously excluded from the charity, but middle and upper class Muslims must practice this pillar.
To learn more about the third pillar of Islam, Zakat, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/46/
The forth pillar of Islam is Saum, or fasting. Ramadan is the name given to the holy month in the Islamic calendar. During this month, all Muslims who are able are obligated to fast from sun up to sun down. The fasting requires refraining from eating, drinking, smoking, or sexual intercourse. The reason for this is to practice discipline, unselfishness, devotion, and love to God, and shows compassion to those who are unable to eat. This must only be practiced by adults who are physically and mentally able to do so. It excludes young children, the elderly, pregnant women, and people who are seriously ill.
To learn more about the forth pillar of Islam, Saum, visit this site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/47/
The fifth, and last pillar of Islam is the Hajj, or pilgrimage. Mecca is the holy city of Islam, and each Muslim must make a pilgrimage to this site at least one time during their lifetime. Mecca unites Muslims from all over the world sharing the same beliefs. They take this journey to Mecca to worship and glorify their God, Allah. This pilgrimage is also seen as a spiritual journey, following in the steps of Muhammad. The pilgrimate serves as the ultimate forgiveness of sins, devotion, and intense spirituality.
To learn more about the fifth pillar of Islam, the Hajj, visit the following site:
http://www.islamreligion.com/articles/184/
The five pillars of Islam are the foundation to the religion and the Muslim way of life. It is through these five obligations that Muslims prove their faith in their God, Allah. They shape the importance of the religion, and are the five tasks that must be accomplished to fulfill their lives as Muslims practicing the Islamic religion. Each religion is based on foundations, and have aspects that must be accomplished in order to practice that particular faith. It is important that we recognize religions other than our own and understand what is believed in around the world.
http://www.wisegeek.com/what-are-the-five-pillars-of-islam.htm
http://www.themodernreligion.com/basic/islam_pillars.htm
http://www.allaboutreligion.org/five-pillars-of-islam-faq.htm
http://www.carm.org/five-pillars-of-islam
Wednesday, November 18, 2009
Islamic Symbols
In most religions, there is an iconic symbol that is affiliated with the religion in question. The symbol serves as a banner or an image of hope. In Christianity, there are multiple iconic symbols, but the most recognizable symbol is Jesus on the cross. This is an image of suffering and sacrifice for the greater good of the people. In Buddhism, the iconic symbol is the "Budduh." This jolly-looking figure is an overweight bald man sitting with his legs crossed and has an inviting smile on his face.
In Islam however, there is no official or direct symbol that represents the religion. Over the years, the most common symbol became the star and the cresent symbol. This image is represented on the flags of many countries of islamic faith, such as Turkey and Pakistan. Surprisingly, the symbol is not Muslim in origin. Rather, it was a polytheistic icon adopted during the spread of Islam, and its use today is sometimes controversial in the Muslim world.
It is important to keep in mind that Islam has few traditional symbols, and the crescent moon and star are not ones that are recognized by as traditional symbols by Muslims. The symbol is due to cultral diffusion and the spread of Islam to the Ottoman turks who ruled a large area and also put the crescent moon and star symbol on their flag.
In Islam however, there is no official or direct symbol that represents the religion. Over the years, the most common symbol became the star and the cresent symbol. This image is represented on the flags of many countries of islamic faith, such as Turkey and Pakistan. Surprisingly, the symbol is not Muslim in origin. Rather, it was a polytheistic icon adopted during the spread of Islam, and its use today is sometimes controversial in the Muslim world.
It is important to keep in mind that Islam has few traditional symbols, and the crescent moon and star are not ones that are recognized by as traditional symbols by Muslims. The symbol is due to cultral diffusion and the spread of Islam to the Ottoman turks who ruled a large area and also put the crescent moon and star symbol on their flag.
Tuesday, November 17, 2009
What is Islam?
Islam is the youngest of the Universal religions. Islam is an Arabic word which means "Submission" and derives from a word meaning peace. Muslim is the title of the people who believe in the Islamic religion. There are many aspects of the Islamic religion.
First, in the religion, they believe in one God, Allah, which is the Arabic word for God. Tawhid is the most important Islamic beleif. It is the belief in Allah with all his power. Tawhid indicates that Allah is the sustainer of the universe and the soul source of guidance. The first step to becoming adopting the Islamic faith is the belief that there is no god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet.
http://www.ethikana.com/islam/allah_swt.htm
Also, Muslims believe in prophets, and Muhammad was the most well known and important. When Muhammad was forty years old, he was meditation and received his first revelation from God through the angel Gabriel. Muhammad began preaching what he heard from the angel and was persecuted for doing so. Because of the harsh treatment, he emigrated from Makkah for Madinah. This migration was known as the Hijra. After many years, Muhammad and his followers forgave their enemies and returned to Makkah. When Muhammad passed away, most of Arabia became Muslim, and it continued to spread.
http://www.zajel.org/article_view.asp?newsID=3218&cat=9
The Muslim Holy book is the Qur'an. It is the primary doctrinal source of Islam. It is the product of Allah's revelations to Muhammad over a period of twenty three years. It is divided into thirty sections with 114 chapters, 7 stops, 16 prostrations, and 6,666 verses. Many verses are very poetic, while others are just written normally.
http://www.ethikana.com/islam/about_quran.htm
Another aspect of Islam is the five pillars. They are the foundations of Muslim life. The first pillar is faith; the belief in Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet. The second pillar is prayer; Muslims are to pray daily. The third pillar is helping the needy. The fourth pillar is fasting; during the month of Ramadan each year, Muslims fast from first light to sun down. The last and fifth pillar is the pilgrimage to Makkah or "Mecca." It is known as the Hajj in Arabic.
http://www.zajel.org/article_view.asp?newsID=3216&cat=9
Islam, like all religions, has many parts to it. It is not just the faith in Allah, but the dedication to the Qur'an and practicing the five pillars. Although Islam is the youngest of the universal religions, it spread just as far and is practiced by just as many as the other religions. Today, Islam is the second largest religion in the world behind Christianity. 1.2 billion people practice this religion and they represent 22% of the entire world's population.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_numb.htm
First, in the religion, they believe in one God, Allah, which is the Arabic word for God. Tawhid is the most important Islamic beleif. It is the belief in Allah with all his power. Tawhid indicates that Allah is the sustainer of the universe and the soul source of guidance. The first step to becoming adopting the Islamic faith is the belief that there is no god but Allah and Mohammed is his prophet.
http://www.ethikana.com/islam/allah_swt.htm
Also, Muslims believe in prophets, and Muhammad was the most well known and important. When Muhammad was forty years old, he was meditation and received his first revelation from God through the angel Gabriel. Muhammad began preaching what he heard from the angel and was persecuted for doing so. Because of the harsh treatment, he emigrated from Makkah for Madinah. This migration was known as the Hijra. After many years, Muhammad and his followers forgave their enemies and returned to Makkah. When Muhammad passed away, most of Arabia became Muslim, and it continued to spread.
http://www.zajel.org/article_view.asp?newsID=3218&cat=9
The Muslim Holy book is the Qur'an. It is the primary doctrinal source of Islam. It is the product of Allah's revelations to Muhammad over a period of twenty three years. It is divided into thirty sections with 114 chapters, 7 stops, 16 prostrations, and 6,666 verses. Many verses are very poetic, while others are just written normally.
http://www.ethikana.com/islam/about_quran.htm
Another aspect of Islam is the five pillars. They are the foundations of Muslim life. The first pillar is faith; the belief in Allah and that Muhammad is his prophet. The second pillar is prayer; Muslims are to pray daily. The third pillar is helping the needy. The fourth pillar is fasting; during the month of Ramadan each year, Muslims fast from first light to sun down. The last and fifth pillar is the pilgrimage to Makkah or "Mecca." It is known as the Hajj in Arabic.
http://www.zajel.org/article_view.asp?newsID=3216&cat=9
Islam, like all religions, has many parts to it. It is not just the faith in Allah, but the dedication to the Qur'an and practicing the five pillars. Although Islam is the youngest of the universal religions, it spread just as far and is practiced by just as many as the other religions. Today, Islam is the second largest religion in the world behind Christianity. 1.2 billion people practice this religion and they represent 22% of the entire world's population.
http://www.religioustolerance.org/isl_numb.htm
Monday, November 16, 2009
In English Please
I am not a particularly religious person, but the idea religion has always been of interest to me. It is fascinating to look at the major world religions and to study their similarities and differences as well as the differences in the doctrine versus the actual practice of the religion. However, I have found myself confused and overwhelmed with all of the fractures within the system and the different denominations. Even though history is chronological for the most part, I find it easier to understand some aspects if I know what is going to happen.
For a world regional geography class a few semesters ago, I created my own simplified version of the history of world religions; a timeline of sorts. I like uncomplicated explanations because it makes studying a bit easier. Part of my outline shows the progression of Christianity and highlights events such as the Great Schism in 1054. I also included more details such as a list of denominations that grew from several divisions in the church.
History of World Religions: Christianity
I also included links to comparisons between denominations from Religious Facts. I like these charts because they are easy to read and compare the denominations well; it makes studying religion less overwhelming.
•Facts and Stats
•Beliefs
•Practices
•Positions on Social and Ethical Issues
•Catholic and Protestant Theology
Another nice graphic to help make sense of the organization of Christianity can be found here.
Source Consulted:
http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/history.htm
For a world regional geography class a few semesters ago, I created my own simplified version of the history of world religions; a timeline of sorts. I like uncomplicated explanations because it makes studying a bit easier. Part of my outline shows the progression of Christianity and highlights events such as the Great Schism in 1054. I also included more details such as a list of denominations that grew from several divisions in the church.
History of World Religions: Christianity
- Divisions: Eastern Orthodox Church, Roman Catholic Church, Oriental Orthodoxy,
- Great Schism, 1054.
- Eastern Orthodox Church
i. Denominations include: British Orthodox; Serbian Orthodox; Orthodox Church of Finland; Russian Orthodox; Syrian Orthodox; Ukrainian Orthodox; Bulgarian Orthodox; Romanian Orthodox; Antiochian Orthodox; Greek Orthodox; the Church of Alexandria; the Church of Jerusalem; and the Orthodox Church in America.
- Roman Catholic Church
i. Protestant Reformation.
1. Denominations include: Amish; The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (Mormon); Jehovah's Witnesses; Quakers; Seventh-Day Adventist Church; United Pentecostal Church International; Calvinism; Lutheranism, Nazarene, Presbyterian.
2. Reformed: based in Switzerland. Followed teachings of Ulrich Zwingli and John Calvin.
3. Presbyterianism: based in Scotland. Followed teachings of John Knox.
4. Anabaptists: based in Switzerland. Connected with Amish, Mennonites, Quakers, and Baptists.
5. Anglicanism: based in England. Created by King Henry VIII.
i. Episcopalianism: interpretation of Anglicanism in America.
ii. Methodism: based on Anglicanism. Followed the teachings of John Wesley.
I also included links to comparisons between denominations from Religious Facts. I like these charts because they are easy to read and compare the denominations well; it makes studying religion less overwhelming.
•Facts and Stats
•Beliefs
•Practices
•Positions on Social and Ethical Issues
•Catholic and Protestant Theology
Another nice graphic to help make sense of the organization of Christianity can be found here.
Source Consulted:
http://www.religionfacts.com/christianity/denominations/history.htm
Vocabulary Lesson!! Yay!!
As a person who is likes to keep up with happenings around the world, it is important to be familiar with the terminology that is used regarding certain topics. Since our topic this week is Islam, I thought it would be useful to explain frequently used vocabulary when addressing Islam.
I have heard many people use the words “Islam” and “Muslim” interchangeably. Simply, Islam is the religion and a Muslim is a follower of that religion. In 2005, PBS aired a special called “In the Name of Islam” and on its website invited viewers to submit their questions. Albert Frank of Kingston, Pa. asks:
The first pillar, “faith or belief in the Oneness of God,” means that Muslims accept Allah (God) as the only god. Additionally, they believe in “the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad” which means that Muhammad is the only person who has interacted with Allah and is his prophet.
I have heard many people use the words “Islam” and “Muslim” interchangeably. Simply, Islam is the religion and a Muslim is a follower of that religion. In 2005, PBS aired a special called “In the Name of Islam” and on its website invited viewers to submit their questions. Albert Frank of Kingston, Pa. asks:
“Please explain again the difference between Islam and Muslim. Is Islam a religion and are Muslims people who believe in and practice Islam?”Professor Salim Mansur offered a more in depth answer to Frank’s question. He wrote,
“Islam is the faith-tradition and the word "Islam" means "peace" and "submission," hence "peace through submission to God (Allah in Arabic), the Lord of the Universe, the Master of the Day of Recompense." "Muslim" means a person who has made such a submission, at least in its outward form.”
Islam is built on five “pillars” which are the foundation of Islam. They are:
- Faith or belief in the Oneness of God and the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad;
- Establishment of the daily prayers;
- Concern for and almsgiving to the needy;
- Self-purification through fasting; and
- The pilgrimage to Makkah for those who are able.
The first pillar, “faith or belief in the Oneness of God,” means that Muslims accept Allah (God) as the only god. Additionally, they believe in “the finality of the prophethood of Muhammad” which means that Muhammad is the only person who has interacted with Allah and is his prophet.
The second pillar, “establishment of the daily prayers,” requires Muslims to pray daily on five occasions: pre-dawn, noon, afternoon, sunset, and evening.
The third pillar, “concern for and almsgiving to the needy,” is also known as Zakat. Islam asks that Muslims donate a portion of their monies to help other, less fortunate Muslims. A quick Google search for “Zakat calculator” yields nearly 50,000 websites to help calculate a donation.
The fourth pillar of Islam, “self-purification through fasting,” takes place during the month of Ramadan. Ramadan falls on the ninth month of the Islamic calendar. Muslims are required to fast from sun up to sun down each day. At the end of the month, a celebratory feast is held; it is known as "Eid" or "Eid ul-Fitr.”
Finally, the fifth pillar, “pilgrimage to Makkah” [Mecca] is required of all Muslims who are physically and financially able to make the trip. As written on Religious Facts website:
The most sacred place in Islam is the Ka'ba in Mecca, Saudi Arabia. The Ka'ba is a mosque (built by Abraham according to Muslim tradition) built around a black stone. The Prophet Muhammad designated Mecca as the holy city of Islam and the direction (qibla) in which all Muslims should offer their prayers.
The last aspect of Islam that I want to touch on briefly is the two major sects, Shiite and Sunni. Again, to make is simple, the difference between the two is that Shiite Muslims believe that the appropriate caliphs to serve after Muhammad are those with direct, blood relation to the prophet. Sunni Muslims, however, believe that any legitimate religious leader is qualified to succeed Muhammad. This distinction has been the cause for conflicts between governments in the Middle East.
Sunday, November 15, 2009
Iconic symbols of Buddha and Jesus
In the two faiths of Christianity and Buddhism, there are two icons that come to mind. When someone thinks about the Christian faith, the image of a starving, beaten, bloody man nailed to a cross. To a person that has no idea about Jesus or Christianity, this image is not very appealing.
In Buddhism, the iconic image is of a very round and plump man with a big smile on his face and he is sitting with his legs criss-crossed. On image alone, I believe that Buddhism is more appealing than Christianity. The Buddha looks jolly and inviting to all who care to listen.
If a person had to choose to follow a religion based only on how the icon of that religion appeals to them, I truely believe that person would choose to follow Buddhism. When looking at the the image of a bloody Jesus nailed to a cross, this tells me that this man has suffered a lot of pain and to be honest, makes the image of Christianity very depressing. Buddha, however, sits with his legs crossed and his giant belly sticks out while wearing a warm and welcoming smile on his face. Legend says that if a person rubs Buddha's belly, that person will have good luck.
In Buddhism, the iconic image is of a very round and plump man with a big smile on his face and he is sitting with his legs criss-crossed. On image alone, I believe that Buddhism is more appealing than Christianity. The Buddha looks jolly and inviting to all who care to listen.
If a person had to choose to follow a religion based only on how the icon of that religion appeals to them, I truely believe that person would choose to follow Buddhism. When looking at the the image of a bloody Jesus nailed to a cross, this tells me that this man has suffered a lot of pain and to be honest, makes the image of Christianity very depressing. Buddha, however, sits with his legs crossed and his giant belly sticks out while wearing a warm and welcoming smile on his face. Legend says that if a person rubs Buddha's belly, that person will have good luck.
The Byzantine Empire
After the division of the Eastern and Western parts of Rome, the eastern remained under the rule of Constantine, the first Christian emperor of Rome. Constantine moved the capital from Rome to the city of Byzantium. He rebuilt the city and called it Constantinople, naming it after himself. This new capital city represents the end of the Roman Empire and the beginning of the Byzantine Empire. He began building monuments to create a more Christian feel in the new capital city. The first church built there by Constantinople was the church of St Eirene, and it was dedicated to Holy peace.
The fall of Rome ended the western half of the Roman Empire, and the eastern half continued as the Byzantine Empire. The empire had many different elements, a few of which were Christianity and Greek education. The Christianity developed here was the most significant cultural feature of the Byzantium Empire. It had a major influence on Orthodox Christianity, and missionary work began its spread.
The Byzantine Empire covered Greece, Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The empire looked less like a Roman empire, and had more of a Greek aspect, because the Greeks were the predominant race in the empire. Greek became the main language of the empire, replacing Latin. Also, legislation became thoroughly Greek.
The Byzantine Empire fell to Muslim invaders in 1453 because of the sack of Constantinople.
The Christianity and Greek influence in the Byzantine empire was extremely important. The spread of Orthodox Christianity lead to the adoption of a new religion still practiced in many places today. Without Constantine, and the Byzantine empire, Christianity might not have spread the way it did, and the religion would not be how it is today.
http://www.gothicmed.com/gothicmed/GothicMed/virtual-museum/greece/General/Byzantio.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/index.html
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac59
http://www.lycos.com/info/byzantine-empire.html
The fall of Rome ended the western half of the Roman Empire, and the eastern half continued as the Byzantine Empire. The empire had many different elements, a few of which were Christianity and Greek education. The Christianity developed here was the most significant cultural feature of the Byzantium Empire. It had a major influence on Orthodox Christianity, and missionary work began its spread.
The Byzantine Empire covered Greece, Balkans, Asia Minor, Syria, and Egypt. The empire looked less like a Roman empire, and had more of a Greek aspect, because the Greeks were the predominant race in the empire. Greek became the main language of the empire, replacing Latin. Also, legislation became thoroughly Greek.
The Byzantine Empire fell to Muslim invaders in 1453 because of the sack of Constantinople.
The Christianity and Greek influence in the Byzantine empire was extremely important. The spread of Orthodox Christianity lead to the adoption of a new religion still practiced in many places today. Without Constantine, and the Byzantine empire, Christianity might not have spread the way it did, and the religion would not be how it is today.
http://www.gothicmed.com/gothicmed/GothicMed/virtual-museum/greece/General/Byzantio.html
http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/byzantium/index.html
http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?historyid=ac59
http://www.lycos.com/info/byzantine-empire.html
Richard the Lionhearted
Richard I of England is best know for his role in the third Crusade, but his varied and often violent disposition followed him throughout his life. Richard was the second son of Henry II of England, who gave him his holdings in southern France. Henry encouraged his sons to live and learn in their own lands, but failed to teach them good methods of power and control. Eventually, his sons revolted against him, and although Henry defeated them, tensions and battles remained a continuous state of affairs for the family.
As he grew, Richard gained a reputation for power and chivalry through his many conquests. Richard loved power and might, and expended much energy and money on all chivalric pursuits. When he heard of the Crusade held in 1188, he became very involved and almost obsessed with it. Religious objectives justified the chance to show his strength, and Richard returned to England from his land in France to collect money to fund his contribution to the Crusade. He threw all his energy into fundraising, in both legitimate and questionable means, including the sale of political appointments and church lands.
In addition to his mishandling of state monies, Richard took many of his wise advisers with him on the Crusade and left many energetic officials in England who would have done well to join him. Richard committed many cruel acts while abroad, including killing many prisoners in a rage. In his absence, England was again upset by rebellion, and Richard rushed to return home because he found the chances of retaking Jerusalem slim. On his way, he was wrecked and taken prisoner, but England paid his ransom.
Richard returned England's aid by abandoning his country and returning to his lands in France, where he died in a battle with France. He left England under the watch of Archbishop Hubert Walter, who governed capably but tried to extort money from the people and church.
Richard supposedly died sincerely regretting his indiscretions, and one bishop considered him the most religious of his brothers. These positive descriptions, however, don't balance his acts in the eyes of history. Many people only know of him through his association with the Crusades, and as they learn about his failures as a leader, their bad impression is cemented.
Source and more information: Catholic Encyclopedia
As he grew, Richard gained a reputation for power and chivalry through his many conquests. Richard loved power and might, and expended much energy and money on all chivalric pursuits. When he heard of the Crusade held in 1188, he became very involved and almost obsessed with it. Religious objectives justified the chance to show his strength, and Richard returned to England from his land in France to collect money to fund his contribution to the Crusade. He threw all his energy into fundraising, in both legitimate and questionable means, including the sale of political appointments and church lands.
In addition to his mishandling of state monies, Richard took many of his wise advisers with him on the Crusade and left many energetic officials in England who would have done well to join him. Richard committed many cruel acts while abroad, including killing many prisoners in a rage. In his absence, England was again upset by rebellion, and Richard rushed to return home because he found the chances of retaking Jerusalem slim. On his way, he was wrecked and taken prisoner, but England paid his ransom.
Richard returned England's aid by abandoning his country and returning to his lands in France, where he died in a battle with France. He left England under the watch of Archbishop Hubert Walter, who governed capably but tried to extort money from the people and church.
Richard supposedly died sincerely regretting his indiscretions, and one bishop considered him the most religious of his brothers. These positive descriptions, however, don't balance his acts in the eyes of history. Many people only know of him through his association with the Crusades, and as they learn about his failures as a leader, their bad impression is cemented.
Source and more information: Catholic Encyclopedia
Byzantium and the History of the Orthodox Church
Byzantium was an ancient Roman city that served as a major hub for Christianity. In contrast with today’s untheological mindset, Byzantium flourished with religious festivities and passionately heated debates. It was a powerful center for Christian civilization, with which any other Roman or European city could not compete.
There was no clear line that divided the church from the state in Byzantium. The two were seen as one unit, not truly separable. Emperors Constantine and Justinian played significant roles in blurring this division. The emperor played an important role in several religious ceremonies, as he was viewed as a symbol of the monarchy of God in Heaven.
Monasticism was a large aspect of religious life in Byzantium. It started in Egypt and Syria but quickly found its way into Christendom. There are three different aspects of monasticism: “first the hermits, ascetics leading the solitary life in huts or caves, and even in tombs, among the branches of trees, or on the tops of pillars … Secondly there is the community life, where monks dwell together under a common rule and in a regularly constituted monastery … Finally there is a form of the monastic life intermediate between the first two, the semi-eremitic life, a 'middle way' where instead of a single highly organized community there is a loosely knit group of small settlements, each settlement containing perhaps between two and six members living together under the guidance of an elder.”
It is interesting to read about the history of a religion that is so popular today. There are several aspects to the religion that are not commonly known, even though so many know the generalities about such a religion.
Reference:
http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/history3.aspx#Byzantine%20Christianity
There was no clear line that divided the church from the state in Byzantium. The two were seen as one unit, not truly separable. Emperors Constantine and Justinian played significant roles in blurring this division. The emperor played an important role in several religious ceremonies, as he was viewed as a symbol of the monarchy of God in Heaven.
Monasticism was a large aspect of religious life in Byzantium. It started in Egypt and Syria but quickly found its way into Christendom. There are three different aspects of monasticism: “first the hermits, ascetics leading the solitary life in huts or caves, and even in tombs, among the branches of trees, or on the tops of pillars … Secondly there is the community life, where monks dwell together under a common rule and in a regularly constituted monastery … Finally there is a form of the monastic life intermediate between the first two, the semi-eremitic life, a 'middle way' where instead of a single highly organized community there is a loosely knit group of small settlements, each settlement containing perhaps between two and six members living together under the guidance of an elder.”
It is interesting to read about the history of a religion that is so popular today. There are several aspects to the religion that are not commonly known, even though so many know the generalities about such a religion.
Reference:
http://www.orthodoxinfo.com/general/history3.aspx#Byzantine%20Christianity
Saturday, November 14, 2009
In reflecting on a passage in the Kevin Riley text it was quite interesting to find that a lot of Christian roots come from Jewish root. Even tough Judaism was here long before Jesus Christ ever walked the Earth, Christianity flourished and still flourishes today in much of Europe and America. In reading this passage it referred to the book of Matthew in the Christian Bible. It tells a story of Jesus performing miracles and making many speeches to the people. He did so in a welcoming way and warned them to follow him. Among the Christian faith, Jesus Christ is Gods son and therefore was to save the world from total damnation. In this text he preaches about the coming of the end of the world. In this he states that the end will not coming until the words of the gospel reach every single person in every single nation. He warns them that there will be many false prophets and many people will be persecuted for being Christian and following Jesus Christ. It is interesting to see that many if not all of the things mentioned have happened in some form or another excluding, of course, the part about the gospel reaching all nations for that has not yet happened. Also in this text Matthew talks about what Christ says the end of the world will be like. He describes it as "the sun will darken", "the stars will fall from heaven and the powers of the heavens shall be shaken". In describing the terrible things that will happen he also lays down a short parable about a fig tree. In comparing the signs that Christs gives his people about the end of the world and the signs of spring apparent with the leaves on the fig tree, he is able to allow Christians to connect to the word of their God and understand these things that are being said.
It is a very interesting passage to read, and says a lot about Christianity. Whether Christianity is the truth or not, it is interesting the amount of people in the world today that can call themselves Christians. The very gruesome description of the end of the world in a Christians eye tells a lot about the world in itself. Also in comparing it to other religions, it is interesting to wonder what truly is the truth.
Riley, Kevin. Worlds of History; A Comparative Reader. 3rd ed. 1, To 1550. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin, 2007.
It is a very interesting passage to read, and says a lot about Christianity. Whether Christianity is the truth or not, it is interesting the amount of people in the world today that can call themselves Christians. The very gruesome description of the end of the world in a Christians eye tells a lot about the world in itself. Also in comparing it to other religions, it is interesting to wonder what truly is the truth.
Riley, Kevin. Worlds of History; A Comparative Reader. 3rd ed. 1, To 1550. Boston: Bedford/St. Martin, 2007.
Justinian: Byzantine Emperor
Justinian I was an aspiring ruler of the Byzantine Empire whose ultimate goal was to re-conquer Rome, despite the several obstacles and failures that stood in his way. His contributions to the empire included the reformation of taxation and a new body of laws called the corpus iuris civilis, which combined Roman laws with the beliefs of Christianity. This new system of laws would influence later European countries and be the standard for which they based their legal practices on.
Much of his reign stressed the importance of Christianity, however for a short period of time, Justinian believed in Monophysite Doctrine, which claimed that Christ only had one nature that was truly divine and dismissed his humanity. This put a strain on his relationship with the Roman Pope. Eventually, after realizing that he needed the power and influence of the Pope, he changed his beliefs once more, and accepted the orthodox belief in both the divine and human nature of Christ.
While he was not having luck in the political and religious aspects of his empire, he did make a large contribution to the artistic culture of the Byzantine Empire. He had the Santa Sophia built in Constantinople and the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. These two buildings were influential architectural breakthroughs that later gave influence to European architecture and mosaic style.
Although Justinian was tied to the Orthodox Latin Church, his persecutions of non-Christians played a role that eventually did more harm than good for his goal of re-conquering Rome. It was because of this persecution and intolerance that foreign nations, especially Muslim rulers, were largely accepted by a majority of the Byzantine people. It was because of his failed expeditions and persecutions of non-Christians that prevented him from achieving his goal of conquering Rome.
Links:
Thursday, November 12, 2009
Shared Saints: A Common Bond
Despite the division between the Byzantine and Western Catholic Churches, they share many things because of their common origin. For example, both celebrate many of the same saints, including Saints Cyril and Methodius.
The Byzantine Church recognizes Cyril and Methodius as great saints, "equal to the apostles" for their work in bringing the Orthodox faith to central Europe. The Roman Catholic Church also considers them important; Pope Leo XII even wrote an encyclical to introduce their feast day. Although originally only Slovenia, Moravia, and Croatia celebrated them, eventually Pope Pius IX officially recognized their feast day, and Pope Leo XII made it an official universal feast day in 1880.
The brothers are most known for their work as missionaries to the Slavic peoples of Europe. They converted many, and their success is primarily attributed to their work in creating a written Slavic language and translating Biblical and liturgical books into the vernacular. Cyril and Methodius devised an alphabet to make the written language, and their proficiency in the Slavic language from a young age made their task easier. Cyril's education in Constantinople increased their success as well, because he was able to apply what he knew to aid the spread of litearacy, and therefore Christianity.
Cyril and Methodius exemplify one of the many reasons people convert to new religions: education. In addition to preaching Orthodox Christianity, a religion that could be practiced in their own languages, the brothers offered literacy, in the form of religious texts written in Slavic. Because of their work, Cyril and Methodius are considered some of the greatest missionaries of Orthodox Christianity to the world, as well as the founders of Slavic civilization. For these contributions, both the Roman Catholic and Byzantine Orthodox churches honor them as saints.
Sources: OrthodoxWiki, Papel Encyclicals Online
The Byzantine Church recognizes Cyril and Methodius as great saints, "equal to the apostles" for their work in bringing the Orthodox faith to central Europe. The Roman Catholic Church also considers them important; Pope Leo XII even wrote an encyclical to introduce their feast day. Although originally only Slovenia, Moravia, and Croatia celebrated them, eventually Pope Pius IX officially recognized their feast day, and Pope Leo XII made it an official universal feast day in 1880.
The brothers are most known for their work as missionaries to the Slavic peoples of Europe. They converted many, and their success is primarily attributed to their work in creating a written Slavic language and translating Biblical and liturgical books into the vernacular. Cyril and Methodius devised an alphabet to make the written language, and their proficiency in the Slavic language from a young age made their task easier. Cyril's education in Constantinople increased their success as well, because he was able to apply what he knew to aid the spread of litearacy, and therefore Christianity.
Cyril and Methodius exemplify one of the many reasons people convert to new religions: education. In addition to preaching Orthodox Christianity, a religion that could be practiced in their own languages, the brothers offered literacy, in the form of religious texts written in Slavic. Because of their work, Cyril and Methodius are considered some of the greatest missionaries of Orthodox Christianity to the world, as well as the founders of Slavic civilization. For these contributions, both the Roman Catholic and Byzantine Orthodox churches honor them as saints.
Sources: OrthodoxWiki, Papel Encyclicals Online
Wednesday, November 11, 2009
Constantine and Christianity
Constantine was the first Roman Emperor to convert to Christianity. His conversion was extremely important in the rise of Christianity in Rome. Before the Battle of Milvian Bridge, Constantine saw a vision of a labarum. That night, he had a dream, and Christ told him to take this cross into Battle. He was also told him his dream that the symbol would act as a safe guard in all the battles he ever encountered. When he woke up in the morning, he told his soldiers to mark their shield with the symbol in his vision. Constantine and his troops won the Battle of Milvian Bridge, and he continued to wear the labarum for every battle thereafter. Soon after the vision and his victory in the battle, Constantine converted to Christianity with no questions asked. He dropped everything he believed in for this new religion because of a vision and dream he had. Constantine slowly integrated Christianity into the empire.
It is in question whether or not the vision Constantine encountered was a real event, or just a natural event called, “halo phenomena.” Constantine, however, gave the testimony on oath and most historians accept his statement.
Constantine’s conversion to Christianity helped the religion in many ways. He paved the way for the rise of Christianity in Rome. He did a lot of work for the church and the Christian cause. An example includes allowing followers to practice the religion without being persecuted through issuing the Edict of Milan. Constantine played a big part in the growth of the church because he funded Christian leaders and churches. He believed that the church and the state should be as close as possible. This relationship between the church and state made Rome stronger. Constantine’s sponsorship of Christianity made it a favorable religion in Rome.
Constantine’s conversion, involvement, and sponsorship in Christianity had a huge impact on the religion. He paved the way for Christianity in Rome, and practiced aspects of the religion that are still done today such as, worship on Sundays. Without the vision or dream, Constantine may have never converted to Christianity and it may never have been so wide spread through Rome.
http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/131christians/rulers/constantine.html
http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/easteurope/ConstantineConverts.html
http://historymedren.about.com/od/cwho/p/who_constantine.htm
It is in question whether or not the vision Constantine encountered was a real event, or just a natural event called, “halo phenomena.” Constantine, however, gave the testimony on oath and most historians accept his statement.
Constantine’s conversion to Christianity helped the religion in many ways. He paved the way for the rise of Christianity in Rome. He did a lot of work for the church and the Christian cause. An example includes allowing followers to practice the religion without being persecuted through issuing the Edict of Milan. Constantine played a big part in the growth of the church because he funded Christian leaders and churches. He believed that the church and the state should be as close as possible. This relationship between the church and state made Rome stronger. Constantine’s sponsorship of Christianity made it a favorable religion in Rome.
Constantine’s conversion, involvement, and sponsorship in Christianity had a huge impact on the religion. He paved the way for Christianity in Rome, and practiced aspects of the religion that are still done today such as, worship on Sundays. Without the vision or dream, Constantine may have never converted to Christianity and it may never have been so wide spread through Rome.
http://www.christianitytoday.com/ch/131christians/rulers/constantine.html
http://www.thenagain.info/WebChron/easteurope/ConstantineConverts.html
http://historymedren.about.com/od/cwho/p/who_constantine.htm
Sunday, November 8, 2009
Gladiators
Humans have searched for means of entertainment for millennia. Today, our society seems to revolve around how we can relax and be entertained. Everything around us – from television, music and movies to food, the Internet and sporting events – serves as some means of entertainment for us. The leaps and bounds we have made in technology has made our search for leisure easier, however before technology made amusement more readily available, societies had to rely on other things to entertain themselves with.
One way Ancient Romans entertained themselves was through Gladiator contests. Gladiators were typically slaves, condemned criminals, or prisoners of war who were forced to battle against each other, typically to the death. These combatants performed in amphitheaters, which were oval-shaped structures used specially for sporting events. The most famous amphitheater was the Roman Colosseum, built in 80 C.E. by Roman emperor Vespasian and his son Titus.
Gladiators were divided into four different categories, and could be recognized by the type of armor that they wore. Thracians sported a “wide-brimmed crested helmet with visor, high greaves on both legs, arm protector, [and used a] very small shield, and short, curved sword.” Secutors wore an “egg-shaped helmet with round eye-holes, greave on one leg, arm protector, [and used] legionary-style shield and sword (scutum and gladius).” Retiariuses wore arm protectors and a large net, and used a trident and a small dagger for weapons. Those of the Bestiarius type generally wore no armor at all, as they were considered the lowest ranking of the Gladiators. These gladiators were trained to handle and fight several different types of animals. The other divisions of gladiators usually fought against gladiators of a different division.
A typical day watching the Gladiator games started with a processional to the Colosseum. Once there, exhibitions of exotic animals and animal fights took place until a lunch break was called. During the lunch break, the particularly extreme criminals were executed; such criminals included murderers, those having committed arson, and Christians (considered to be guilty of treason and violation of recognizing the emperor of a divine individual). The Gladiator combats followed the lunch break; they fought until either one of them died or gave the signal for defeat – holding up his index finger. At this point, the crowd would determine whether the defeated gladiator should be spared or put to death. They would indicate their preference by giving a thumbs up for sparing his life or a thumbs down for killing him.
Our tastes in entertainment have changed drastically over the millennia. However the search for a way to enjoy ourselves will always be part of our society.
References:
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/arena.html
One way Ancient Romans entertained themselves was through Gladiator contests. Gladiators were typically slaves, condemned criminals, or prisoners of war who were forced to battle against each other, typically to the death. These combatants performed in amphitheaters, which were oval-shaped structures used specially for sporting events. The most famous amphitheater was the Roman Colosseum, built in 80 C.E. by Roman emperor Vespasian and his son Titus.
Gladiators were divided into four different categories, and could be recognized by the type of armor that they wore. Thracians sported a “wide-brimmed crested helmet with visor, high greaves on both legs, arm protector, [and used a] very small shield, and short, curved sword.” Secutors wore an “egg-shaped helmet with round eye-holes, greave on one leg, arm protector, [and used] legionary-style shield and sword (scutum and gladius).” Retiariuses wore arm protectors and a large net, and used a trident and a small dagger for weapons. Those of the Bestiarius type generally wore no armor at all, as they were considered the lowest ranking of the Gladiators. These gladiators were trained to handle and fight several different types of animals. The other divisions of gladiators usually fought against gladiators of a different division.
A typical day watching the Gladiator games started with a processional to the Colosseum. Once there, exhibitions of exotic animals and animal fights took place until a lunch break was called. During the lunch break, the particularly extreme criminals were executed; such criminals included murderers, those having committed arson, and Christians (considered to be guilty of treason and violation of recognizing the emperor of a divine individual). The Gladiator combats followed the lunch break; they fought until either one of them died or gave the signal for defeat – holding up his index finger. At this point, the crowd would determine whether the defeated gladiator should be spared or put to death. They would indicate their preference by giving a thumbs up for sparing his life or a thumbs down for killing him.
Our tastes in entertainment have changed drastically over the millennia. However the search for a way to enjoy ourselves will always be part of our society.
References:
http://www.vroma.org/~bmcmanus/arena.html
The Great Wall
It is interesting to that the the Great Wall of China is still in place today! Wall are used in general for things such as; to keep things or people in, to keep things and people out. They can be offensive to some, saying "we do not want you here", "you are an invader".
There Great Wall was constructed in order to protect the dynasty from western invaders. It was constructed over 2,000 years ago, by Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China during the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C - 206 B.C.). The Great Wall was one of the largest building construction projects ever completed. It stretches across the mountains of northern China. It extends about 8,850 kilometers. Since the Great Wall was discontinuous, Mongol invaders had no trouble breaching the wall by going around it, so the wall proved unsuccessful and was eventually abandoned.
Today it is used for nothing but a tourist spot. Restoration and rebuilding took place in the 20Th century and in 1987 the Great Wall of China was made a World Heritage Site. It is amazing that these wonderfully massive structure such as the Great Wall, the Egyptian Pyramids and other amazing ancient structures around the world were created before they had any of the machinery we have today. It a mystery as to how they were constructed so flawlessly without the help of modern technology.
http://fijidailypost.com/editorial.php?date=20091106
There Great Wall was constructed in order to protect the dynasty from western invaders. It was constructed over 2,000 years ago, by Qin Shi Huangdi, the first emperor of China during the Qin Dynasty (221 B.C - 206 B.C.). The Great Wall was one of the largest building construction projects ever completed. It stretches across the mountains of northern China. It extends about 8,850 kilometers. Since the Great Wall was discontinuous, Mongol invaders had no trouble breaching the wall by going around it, so the wall proved unsuccessful and was eventually abandoned.
Today it is used for nothing but a tourist spot. Restoration and rebuilding took place in the 20Th century and in 1987 the Great Wall of China was made a World Heritage Site. It is amazing that these wonderfully massive structure such as the Great Wall, the Egyptian Pyramids and other amazing ancient structures around the world were created before they had any of the machinery we have today. It a mystery as to how they were constructed so flawlessly without the help of modern technology.
http://fijidailypost.com/editorial.php?date=20091106
Saturday, November 7, 2009
Poison Creating Life
The debates over the origins of human life are extensive and heated. A discussion generating much fewer strong feelings and less controversy in the everyday world is over the origins of life in general--at an atomic level. A recent article from the magazine New Scientist examines this debate and explores a new option.
Because Earth was formed so close to the sun, scientists doubt that the larger, more complex elements necessary for life would have formed at the planet's birth. Life depends on these elements for molecules to create the basic make-up and processes of cells.
Scientists have suggested many theories, including lightning causing chemical reactions and the possibility that falling comets and asteroids brought organic material, but many conflicts to these theories exist. The most significant argument against comets was previously that they burned up as they entered the atmosphere, converting their organic molecules to carbon dioxide.
Recently, however, scientists working with NASA have come up with a third option: cyanide. Researchers fired projectiles simulating comets hitting the Earth and came up with some surprising results: the impact formed cyanide. The poisonous compound contains nitrogen, an important element in amino acid formation, a basic life function.
Because Earth was formed so close to the sun, scientists doubt that the larger, more complex elements necessary for life would have formed at the planet's birth. Life depends on these elements for molecules to create the basic make-up and processes of cells.
Scientists have suggested many theories, including lightning causing chemical reactions and the possibility that falling comets and asteroids brought organic material, but many conflicts to these theories exist. The most significant argument against comets was previously that they burned up as they entered the atmosphere, converting their organic molecules to carbon dioxide.
Recently, however, scientists working with NASA have come up with a third option: cyanide. Researchers fired projectiles simulating comets hitting the Earth and came up with some surprising results: the impact formed cyanide. The poisonous compound contains nitrogen, an important element in amino acid formation, a basic life function.
These findings add another aspect to the debate, but more scientists still do not agree. Donald Brownlee says that
some of early Earth's organic material undoubtedly formed this way...[but] there were probably other sources too, including organic-rich particles of interplanetary dust, which fall to Earth more gently than asteroids and comets. "It gets warmed but it doesn't get extremely hot."
The discussions over the origins of life will continue despite these new findings, but we can all be sure the end result will assure something we already knew: Life exists on planet Earth.
The Noble Eightfold Path
The eightfold path is a guideline to ethical and mental development with the goal of freeing from attachments and delusions.,, and leads followers to the truth about all things. The eight steps are do not have to be followed in sequence, but all eight must be acomplished before reaching pure and everlasting nirvana.
The fist step is, "The Right View." This step basically means to see and understand things the way they really are. Right view is not necessarily an intellectual capacity, just as wisdom is not just a matter of intelligence. Instead, right view is attained, sustained, and enhanced through all capacities of mind.
The second step is, "Right Intention." This is the commitment to ethical and mental energy that controls our actions. Buddha distinguishes three types of right intentions: The intention of renunciation. The intention of good will, meaning resistance to feelings of anger and aversion. Fianlly, the intention of harmlessness, meaning not to think or act cruelly, violently, or aggressively, and to develop compassion.
The third step is, "Right Speech." Right speech is the first principle of ethical conduct in the eightfold path. Buddah explaines right speech as, refrain from lying, do not slander anybody, dont say anything that will hurt somebody's feelings, and finally, do not have conversations unless they have meaning a truth in it.
The fourth step is, Right Action." The second ethical principle, right action, involves the body as natural means of expression, as it refers to deeds that involve bodily actions. Unwholesome actions lead to unsound states of mind, while wholesome actions lead to sound states of mind. Buddah also describes this in three ways. Do not kill anyone, including yourself. Do not steal and do not lie. Finally, abstain from sexual misconduct.
The fifth step is, "Right Livelihood." This means that one should earn his living in a righteous way. In the step Buddah describes things people should avoid. Avoid dealing with weapons, dealing with living beings, working in butchering animals, and selling intoxicants and poisons.
The sixth step is, " Right Effort." This is seen as one of the most important of the eight steps. Without effort, no steps can be achieved.
The seventh step is, "Right Mindfulness." This is the ability to see things as they really are with clear consciosness.
The eighth step is, "Right Concentration." The final of the eighth steps, right concentration means to have a state of mind where all thoughts and ideas are pure and are concentrated on one thing.
The fist step is, "The Right View." This step basically means to see and understand things the way they really are. Right view is not necessarily an intellectual capacity, just as wisdom is not just a matter of intelligence. Instead, right view is attained, sustained, and enhanced through all capacities of mind.
The second step is, "Right Intention." This is the commitment to ethical and mental energy that controls our actions. Buddha distinguishes three types of right intentions: The intention of renunciation. The intention of good will, meaning resistance to feelings of anger and aversion. Fianlly, the intention of harmlessness, meaning not to think or act cruelly, violently, or aggressively, and to develop compassion.
The third step is, "Right Speech." Right speech is the first principle of ethical conduct in the eightfold path. Buddah explaines right speech as, refrain from lying, do not slander anybody, dont say anything that will hurt somebody's feelings, and finally, do not have conversations unless they have meaning a truth in it.
The fourth step is, Right Action." The second ethical principle, right action, involves the body as natural means of expression, as it refers to deeds that involve bodily actions. Unwholesome actions lead to unsound states of mind, while wholesome actions lead to sound states of mind. Buddah also describes this in three ways. Do not kill anyone, including yourself. Do not steal and do not lie. Finally, abstain from sexual misconduct.
The fifth step is, "Right Livelihood." This means that one should earn his living in a righteous way. In the step Buddah describes things people should avoid. Avoid dealing with weapons, dealing with living beings, working in butchering animals, and selling intoxicants and poisons.
The sixth step is, " Right Effort." This is seen as one of the most important of the eight steps. Without effort, no steps can be achieved.
The seventh step is, "Right Mindfulness." This is the ability to see things as they really are with clear consciosness.
The eighth step is, "Right Concentration." The final of the eighth steps, right concentration means to have a state of mind where all thoughts and ideas are pure and are concentrated on one thing.
Friday, November 6, 2009
The Dancing Shiva
One of the more wide spread pieces of art work of Hinduism is the bronze statue of the Dancing Shiva. Shiva is one of the major Hindu gods and is part of the Trimurti, along with Brahma and Vishnu. In the main belief system of The Trimurti, the three represent the aspects of essential forms of life: creation, maintenance, and death. Shiva is considered the god of destruction and death in this belief. The symbol of the Nataraj, or Dancing Shiva, is an important representation of balance and harmony, the motion and activity of the god shows a sense of rhythm. The symbol of the four hands are the four cardinal directions, and the raised leg represents triumph and victory.
Although there are many different interpretations of the symbolism of the objects that are held in each hand, the essence of death, enlightenment, and fearlessness are all the dominant meanings. The dancing pose is an important symbol of the relationship between life and death, and how both are meant to be a cosmic balancing aspect for each other.
The Dancing Shiva is a stunning piece of art work, the earliest representations dating back from twelfth century A.D. Since then, thousands of models and statues have been created from then. This statue is an important symbol of the Hindu religion, and the Indian culture.
Links:
Art History Notes
The Great Wall of China
The Great Wall of China was built in many different sections throughout history. It is thought that the building began during the Spring and Autumn Periods, when China was divided into separate states. The states created independent walls to boarder their territory. During the Qin Dynasty (221-206 BC), the emperor defeated six states and unified China. He ordered the connecting of walls that already stood from previous states, also adding some sections of his own. It was during the Qin Dynasty that the most famous wall was built, but little of it remains. During the Han Dynasty, the court built more, and larger walls, and eventually half of the Silk Road was along the Han’s wall. Though many dynasties contributed to the wall building, the peak of the building took place during the Ming Dynasty. The purpose of the Wall was to protect China from invasions of the Mongols and Turkic Tribes. They expanding the length of the wall, along with enlarged the walls that stood from the work of previous dynasties. When the combination of work from four dynasties was complete, it became the Great Wall of China. The Wall stretches approximately 4,160 miles in total. Today, the Wall has become one of the most popular travel destinations in the world.
It is important to recognize the teamwork that took place to build this significant structure. Each of the dynasties either added on to the length of the wall, or focused on the enlargement of already existing parts. Without the involvement of each of the dynasties and their contribution, the Great Wall of China would not exist today. We see this ripple effect all throughout history, and not just with the building of structures. The origin of everything had to start somewhere, and throughout history, people simply added to it. Everything had to start somewhere to get where it is today.
Wednesday, November 4, 2009
Solving an Ice Age Mystery
460 million years ago, the Appalachian Mountains in Eastern North America formed. 445 million years ago, the Earth dropped into an ice age so severe, two-thirds of all plants and animals went extinct. Coincidence? Seth Young and his colleagues say not, in this article.
In a write-up for ScienceNOW called "The Mountains That Froze the World", Phil Berardelli explains the theory and science behind the connection for the general public. Shortly after giant volcanic explosions formed the mountains,
The original findings published in Geology are a bit indecipherable to a non-scientist, but Berardelli's explanations are clear and much easier to follow. Head on over to ScienceNOW's website through the link above to see the whole article.
From Digg
In a write-up for ScienceNOW called "The Mountains That Froze the World", Phil Berardelli explains the theory and science behind the connection for the general public. Shortly after giant volcanic explosions formed the mountains,
...CO2-laced acid rain fell on the rocks, [and] it formed limestone that washed into the Nevada sea and locked away huge amounts of carbon from the atmosphere. Then, when the volcanism ended, about 450 million years ago, the sequestering continued, thinning CO2 levels to maybe a few times higher than today. Back then, a dimmer sun couldn't keep the atmosphere warm without CO2's help--hence, the eventual onset of the ice age.These findings do not explain the reason the rise of the Himalayas was followed by an ice age, but they do give a reasonable explanation for this ice age. Among previous explanations was the idea that the ash blown up by the volcanoes themselves blocked the sun, but the dates didn't match.
The original findings published in Geology are a bit indecipherable to a non-scientist, but Berardelli's explanations are clear and much easier to follow. Head on over to ScienceNOW's website through the link above to see the whole article.
From Digg
Tuesday, November 3, 2009
The Origin and Meaning Behind the Yin Yang Symbol
I have seen the yin yang symbol so many times in the nineteen years I have been alive, and never knew that behind the symbol there is a meaning, and a reason. I use to draw them on my notebooks, and on my hand because I thought they looked cool, and never thought there might be a reason for the creation of the symbol.
The yin yang symbol was created by Han dynasty philosophers, and has been around for thousands of years. The symbol is also sometimes called the Tai-Chi symbol, and comes from I-Ching, which is the greatest foundation of Chinese philosophy. The I-Ching explains the metaphysical workings of the entire universe; also known as the Tao. They believed the universe is run by the Tao, which is divided into two opposite actions; Yin and Yang. The Yin and Yang can explain all changes in the universe, and all phenomena. They believe that all phenomena has their opposite state within them. The way the yin and yang complete changes in the universe is through their agents; The movement of the stars, the working of the body, the nature of foods, the qualities of music, the ethical qualities of humans, the progress of time, the operations of government, and the nature of historical change. They believed that each of these opposite agents are all related in some way.
The symbol’s main purpose is to represent the universal harmony and unity between opposites that are complimentary to each other. For example, male and female, light and dark, passive and negative, weak and strong, and so on. The goal of the symbol is to send the message that everything in the universe can be related in some way or another, and everything that happens has the roots of its opposite state.
Now whenever I draw the yin yang symbol on my notebook, I will know exactly what I am drawing, and why it was created. Learning the history behind anything can help one to understand exactly why something is the way it is. So next time a symbol is drawn on a notebook, look it up and find out exactly what is being drawn. There is a story and history behind everything.
Monday, November 2, 2009
Ancient Tattoos
I have always found tattoos to be fascinating. I think it would be neat to have one; a nice design/picture/word, something with meaning. However, I am a wimp and will probably never get one. In the meantime, I will continue to find the tattoos that other people have interesting.
I came across an article today from the Smithsonian about tattoos that was originally published in 2007. It seems that Egyptians were the first civilization to tattoo themselves in large numbers. It was mostly females that engaged in tattoos, as shown by several female mummies from about 2000 BCE. This date may be inaccurate due to the discovery of Iceman, who is 5200 years old and has tattoo markings.
Tattoos in ancient times did not have the same meaning as they do today; in fact, it is believed in both cases of the Egyptians and Iceman that the tattoos were used for medical purposes, to alleviate pain. The Egyptians also used them a protection against difficult pregnancies as a good luck charm of sorts. Lines and dot matrices were typical design patterns. Interestingly, a mummy of a Scythian (ancient Iranian) was found with mythical animals tattoos across his body and a woman was also discovered with mythical animals tattooed on her body.
The tools used for ancient tattoos are very different from modern tools. Instruments with sharp metal points and wooden handles were excavated by archaeologist W.M.F. Petrie and are thought to have been used for tattoos. Color was not commonly used in ancient tattoos; dark inks were most common. However, Inuit tribes used yellow pigments for their designs. Today, the tattooing process is automated with tattoo machines. HowStuffWorks.com has a nice graphic that shows exactly how a tattoo is created with modern technology.
Joann Fletcher, a research fellow at University of York in Britain, wraps up the interview with Smithsonian and explains how and why tattooing came about in several different cultures: “In many cases, it seems to have sprung up independently as a permanent way to place protective or therapeutic symbols upon the body, then as a means of marking people out into appropriate social, political or religious groups, or simply as a form of self-expression or fashion statement.”
I have included a link to the Smithsonian’s collection of mummies and with tattoo markings as well as ancient tools used. The two pictures are actual mummies, so be warned!
Also, here are tattoos by famous tattoo artist, Kat von D.
I came across an article today from the Smithsonian about tattoos that was originally published in 2007. It seems that Egyptians were the first civilization to tattoo themselves in large numbers. It was mostly females that engaged in tattoos, as shown by several female mummies from about 2000 BCE. This date may be inaccurate due to the discovery of Iceman, who is 5200 years old and has tattoo markings.
Tattoos in ancient times did not have the same meaning as they do today; in fact, it is believed in both cases of the Egyptians and Iceman that the tattoos were used for medical purposes, to alleviate pain. The Egyptians also used them a protection against difficult pregnancies as a good luck charm of sorts. Lines and dot matrices were typical design patterns. Interestingly, a mummy of a Scythian (ancient Iranian) was found with mythical animals tattoos across his body and a woman was also discovered with mythical animals tattooed on her body.
The tools used for ancient tattoos are very different from modern tools. Instruments with sharp metal points and wooden handles were excavated by archaeologist W.M.F. Petrie and are thought to have been used for tattoos. Color was not commonly used in ancient tattoos; dark inks were most common. However, Inuit tribes used yellow pigments for their designs. Today, the tattooing process is automated with tattoo machines. HowStuffWorks.com has a nice graphic that shows exactly how a tattoo is created with modern technology.
Joann Fletcher, a research fellow at University of York in Britain, wraps up the interview with Smithsonian and explains how and why tattooing came about in several different cultures: “In many cases, it seems to have sprung up independently as a permanent way to place protective or therapeutic symbols upon the body, then as a means of marking people out into appropriate social, political or religious groups, or simply as a form of self-expression or fashion statement.”
I have included a link to the Smithsonian’s collection of mummies and with tattoo markings as well as ancient tools used. The two pictures are actual mummies, so be warned!
Also, here are tattoos by famous tattoo artist, Kat von D.
Sunday, November 1, 2009
Mixture of Culture
Today we have airplanes, trains, cars and many other forms of transportation. People travel for vacation, work, school and many other things. In doing so, people are able to learn about other areas of the world whether it be in another state or halfway around the globe. Gradually, because of this travelling people pick up different things from the places they go such as material goods, lingo, ideas, and wealth. Slowly throughout time people slowly begin to shift culture from what they used to have to new ideas and materials. Culture gets passed around so much that slowly it becomes normal for an American to have a Spanish style house and eat many different Italian dishes at meals. Because it becomes normal people do not always think of it as the spreading around of ideas but instead just a modernization of culture. This mixing of culture soon forms a "melting pot" of ideas and people. America mainly but other countries as well are full of these traditions and mixture of culture.
Most people do not even think about this modernization that takes place. It is interesting to note that because of these traveling ideas, people often get a slanted view of the true culture of a certain place. A good example of this is some restaurants we have in the U.S., Taco Bell for instance sell Mexican food, so in every aspect people expect to get true Mexican food when they eat at taco bell. This slanted view of what true Mexican cuisine taste like often leads to ignorance and stereotypes. While people still enjoy the food they are eating, they are still somewhat mislead by saying Taco Bell is Mexican food. Same things are true with say Chinese restaurants. America itself has developed somewhat of a difference between Taco Bell and say "real" Mexican cuisine by using the term authentic.
Because the world has changed so much since the days of the first trading and expedition of ideas, it is evident that through this mixture of cultures that there is some culture lost to modernization. It is interesting though that country all over the globe fight hard for the preservation of there culture. While other simply want to explore other cultures.
Most people do not even think about this modernization that takes place. It is interesting to note that because of these traveling ideas, people often get a slanted view of the true culture of a certain place. A good example of this is some restaurants we have in the U.S., Taco Bell for instance sell Mexican food, so in every aspect people expect to get true Mexican food when they eat at taco bell. This slanted view of what true Mexican cuisine taste like often leads to ignorance and stereotypes. While people still enjoy the food they are eating, they are still somewhat mislead by saying Taco Bell is Mexican food. Same things are true with say Chinese restaurants. America itself has developed somewhat of a difference between Taco Bell and say "real" Mexican cuisine by using the term authentic.
Because the world has changed so much since the days of the first trading and expedition of ideas, it is evident that through this mixture of cultures that there is some culture lost to modernization. It is interesting though that country all over the globe fight hard for the preservation of there culture. While other simply want to explore other cultures.
Cross-Cultural Contact: The Silk Road
The United States is considered to be the melting pot of the modern world. People of all nationalities, faiths, and political views coexist side by side. The U.S. would hardly be the great nation it is today without input and influence from virtually every other country. Whether we are tuned into it or not, other cultures affect our day-to-day lives, from our food and fashions to religions, language, and technology. Our very political system, the foundation of our country, was borrowed from ancient powerhouses such as the Greeks and the Romans.
The U.S. certainly is not the first to strive off of cultural connections with other countries. Civilizations have been exchanging social, economic, and political concepts as well as material things, for millennia. One such civilization that has played a major role in the progress of cross-cultural contact is China. Possibly the best known means of cultural exchange was via the Silk Road. Initially this route was established for trade within China itself, however it eventually grew to span the entire Eurasian landmass. Several roads were interconnected to make up the entirety of the Silk Road, and different sections of roads were controlled and used by different groups of merchants and travelers. For 2,000 years, it served as a means for trading religious ideas, technology, diseases, and politics, among many other things.
References:
http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/13406/sr/
Robert Strayer, Ways of the World, a Brief Global History - Volume I: to 1500. pg 211-213.
The U.S. certainly is not the first to strive off of cultural connections with other countries. Civilizations have been exchanging social, economic, and political concepts as well as material things, for millennia. One such civilization that has played a major role in the progress of cross-cultural contact is China. Possibly the best known means of cultural exchange was via the Silk Road. Initially this route was established for trade within China itself, however it eventually grew to span the entire Eurasian landmass. Several roads were interconnected to make up the entirety of the Silk Road, and different sections of roads were controlled and used by different groups of merchants and travelers. For 2,000 years, it served as a means for trading religious ideas, technology, diseases, and politics, among many other things.
References:
http://www.ess.uci.edu/~oliver/silk.html
http://library.thinkquest.org/13406/sr/
Robert Strayer, Ways of the World, a Brief Global History - Volume I: to 1500. pg 211-213.
Saturday, October 31, 2009
Trade in Africa
(Photo from: http://www.solarnavigator.net/animal_kingdom/animal_images/ Camel_Jordanian_Desert.jpg)
The introduction to the camel to North Africa revolutionized trade across the continent. Camels are revered for their ability to endure harsh conditions for days at a time. Because of their stamina, camels were used to make the trek across the Sahara desert from West Africa to the Mediterranean Sea.
With new trade routes open, connections were made across the continent and beyond. Most notably, West Africa was impacted. The desert was no longer impossible to traverse which allowed for new items and new technology to reach across the continent. The sand roads, as they were called, stretched from West Africa to the Mediterranean Sea. Along the roads, new towns sprung up; eventually city-states, states, and empires were also created. And as the towns developed, the need for organization soon became apparent. Monarchies became commonplace and relied on wealth from the trade routes. In fact, “an Arab traveler…described the ruler of Ghana as “the wealthiest king on the face of the planet because of his treasures and stocks of gold, (p.234).Slavery also became common along the sand roads: “…male slaves were put to work as state officials, porters, craftsmen…, (p.234). Many of the slaves came from southern Africa and were sent to work in Islamic households.
With the opening of sand roads, commodities, technologies, and lifestyles were transported from one side of the continent to the other. Different cultures were able to take what they gained from the sand roads back to their cities and incorporate the new ideas into their own culture. Local government and exposure to different religions were a stepping stone for early African civilizations to begin developing and to continue to develop more metropolitan areas.
Source consulted: Robert Strayer, Ways of the World, a Brief Global History - Volume I: to 1500. pg 233-235.
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